Islam_his_tory | تاریخ اسلام

⭕The school of Sunnis or Sunnis make up the main body of Muslims. They are distinctly traditionalist. They emphasize on following the Sunnah or the Prophet's way, which was left from generation to generation. Turkish Muslims are mostly Sunni. Their intellectual tendencies are towards liberalism, Sufism and polytheism. Shias have been heavily influenced by other systems, especially Zoroastrianism.

📚 Source: The World’s Living Religions by Robert Ernest Hume  page 325

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⭕Given the political resonance, intellectual sophistication and central geographical location of the kalām activities just surveyed, it is hardly surprising that the philos-ophers of ninth- to tenth-century Islam felt obliged to respond to the mutakallimūn. One could multiply examples, but I will concentrate on the three most famous Muslim falāsifa before Avicenna, namely, al-Kindī, al-Farabi and al-Rāzi. (Some might hesitate to call al-Rāzi a 'Muslim' faylasüf, I will argue that one should instead hesitate to call him a Muslim 'faylasüf.)
(Abu Bakr Razi was a Muslim)

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⭕ Sir Hamilton Gibb, a Scottish orientalist It is unfortunate that we should be obliged to use the word 'slave' for persons of this status. For it is appropriate only in some ways.
Slaves in Islam are, or were, the property of the masters, who had ahsolute rights over them. But their servitude carried with it scarcely any social inferiority. No distinction was made between the sons of slave women born to a free master and those whose mothers were also free. Indeed, most of the "Abbasid Calipha of Bagdad, to say nothing of minor dynasts, were born of slave


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⭕In countries with warm climates, girls reach puberty at the ages of eight or nine and become fertile after they marry. Thus, it can be said that in hot-climate countries, marriage and fertility among women occur almost immediately one after another.

Prido, in his account of the life of Muhammad (peace be upon him), says that the Prophet married Aisha when he was five years old and consummated the marriage with her when he was eight. This is why, he says, women in hot-climate countries are already old by the age of twenty..."

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⭕ Bahram Moshiri, an atheist and a well-known critic of Islam, said:

“Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) may have been the most intelligent leader ever recorded in history! No one like him has ever been seen who had such a profound impact on world history!”

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⭕الاندلس در دوره خود، به‌مراتب پیشرفته‌تر از بیشتر یا حتی تمام مناطق غرب اروپا بود. در حالی که فرهنگ فکری در غرب مسیحی تقریباً به‌طور کامل در چارچوب مطالعات الهیاتی، محاسبات تقویمی و دستور زبان محدود می‌شد و تنها به‌صورت محدود در زمینه‌هایی چون تاریخ‌نگاری و منطق فلسفی فعالیت‌هایی دیده می‌شد، در اندلس سطح سواد عمومی در میان نخبگان غیر روحانی بسیار بالاتر بود. بخشی از دستاوردهای علمی قرطبه در اواخر خلافت اموی، به‌ویژه در حوزه‌های اخترشناسی، طالع‌بینی و نظام عددنویسی عربی، تا حدود سال ۹۸۰ میلادی به کاتالونیای شمالی راه یافت. در آنجا، راهبی فرانسوی به نام ژربر اهل اوریاک، مسیر درخشانی را آغاز کرد که او را به مقام آموزگار امپراتور اتوی سوم رساند، و در ادامه، به مقام اسقف و نهایتاً پاپ سیلوستر دوم (۹۹۹–۱۰۰۳) دست یافت؛ موفقیتی که تا حد زیادی مرهون دانشی بود که طی مدتی کوتاه در کلیسای جامع شهر ویک کسب کرده بود. آشنایی او با آثاری که از زبان عربی ترجمه شده بودند، این امکان را برایش فراهم کرد تا نخستین رساله لاتینی در باب کاربرد اسطرلاب بنویسد؛ ابزاری کلیدی که نه‌تنها در اخترشناسی، بلکه در ناوبری دریایی نیز نقش حیاتی داشت. او همچنین ابزار "ربع خورشیدی" را برای سنجش زمان احیا کرد و در سال ۹۹۶ نمونه‌ای از آن را در شهر مگدبورگ ساخت. در آن زمان، هیچ‌گونه دانش یا ابزاری مشابه در سراسر جهان مسیحیت لاتینی یافت نمی‌شد

⭕al-Andalus was well in advance of most or all other regions of western Europe, where the intellectual culture of this period was confined almost exclusively to theological, computistic, and grammatical study, with some historiography and philosophical logic. There was also a much higher level of lay literacy in the social elite. Some of the learning of late Umayyad Córdoba, particularly relating to astronomy, astrology, and Arabic numerals, made its way north into Catalonia by around 980. There, a French monk, Gerbert of Aurillac, was launched into a spectacular career as tutor to the emperor Otto III, later becoming archbishop and ultimately Pope Sylvester II (999-1003), largely thanks to the knowledge he acquired during a relatively brief period of study in the cathedral of Vic. His encounter with works translated from Arabic enabled him, amongst other things, to produce the first Latin treatise on the use of the astrolabe, a vital instrument for navigation as well as for astronomical calculations. He also reintroduced the solar quadrant for the calculating of time, creating one in Magdeburg in 996. Nothing of the sort could be found elsewhere in Latin Christendom at this tim

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⭕Abbas seems to have been bisexual. He was served at table by good-looking youths the 'Ganymede boys' as Herbert calls them and clearly enjoyed the lascivious dancing of the Georgian youths in the more louche coffee-houses of Isfahan, which so disgusted Figueroa. Provincial governors and vassal rulers sent him gifts of boys as well as young women. The Carmelite father, John Thaddeus, asserts that he kept 'more than two hundred boys' in his anderoun and was accompanied by thirty to forty naked boys when he went to the baths. 14 This sounds somewhat exaggerated. Nonetheless, bisexuality and pederasty were not uncommon among the Iranian elite in Safavid times as indeed they were not in Elizabethan and Jacobean England

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🟡قرآن کشتن فرزندان دختر را اکیداً ممنوع کرده و اعراب را به خاطر نگرانی‌شان از تولد دختر سرزنش کرده است. همچنین به زنان حقوق قانونی ارث و طلاق داده است: اکثر زنان غربی تا قرن نوزدهم هیچ چیز قابل مقایسه‌ای نداشتند. محمد زنان را تشویق می‌کرد که نقش فعالی در امور امت ایفا کنند و آنها نظرات خود را صریحاً بیان می‌کردند، با اطمینان از اینکه شنیده خواهند شد. به عنوان مثال، در یک مورد، زنان مدینه به پیامبر شکایت کردند که مردان در مطالعه قرآن از آنها پیشی گرفته‌اند و از او خواستند که به آنها کمک کند تا به آنها برسند. محمد این کار را کرد
قرآن بارها و بارها به صراحت به زنان اشاره کرد، چیزی که به ندرت در کتب مقدس یهودیان یا مسیحیان اتفاق می‌افتد

⭕During Muhammad's lifetime, this had included the equality of the sexes. Today it is common in the West to depict Islam as an inherently misogynistic religion but, like Christianity, the religion of al-Lah was originally positive for women. During the jahiliyyah, the pre-Islamic period, Arabia had preserved the attitudes towards women which had prevailed before the Axial Age. Polygamy, for example, was common and wives remained in their father's households. Elite women enjoyed considerable power and prestige Muhammad's first wife Khadija, for example, was a successful merchant but the majority were on a par with slaves, they had no political or human rights and female infanticide was common. Women had been among Muhammad's earliest converts and their emancipation was a project that was dear to his heart.

The Koran strictly forbade the killing of female children and rebuked the Arabs for their dismay when a girl was born. It also gave women legal rights of inheritance and divorce: most Western women had nothing comparable until the nineteenth century. Muhammad encouraged women to play an active role in the affairs of the ummah and they expressed their views forthrightly, confident that they would be heard. On one occasion, for example, the women of Medina had complained to the Prophet that the men were outstripping them in the study of the Koran and asked him to help them catch up. This Muhammad did.

the Koran quite frequently addressed women explicitly, something that rarely happens in either the Jewish or Christian scriptures

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⭕My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world's most in-fluential persons may surprise some readers and may be question-ed by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels.

Of humble origins, Muhammad founded and promulgated one of the world's great religions, and became an immensely ef-fective political leader. Today, thirteen centuries after his death, his influence is still powerful and pervasive

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⭕This is accepted and firmly established among all Muslims, both Arabs and non-Arabs. The text of the Noble Qur’an cannot be transferred into another language, because the target language is incapable of conveying the intended meaning contained in the Divine Word. Therefore, all translations of the Noble Qur’an are referred to as “interpretations of the meanings of the Noble Qur’an.”
The Qur’anic style is miraculous, and it cannot be imitated or matched, because it possesses such eloquence and miraculousness that it rises above the capacity of human language. The Divine mysteries are also contained in the arrangement and ordering of its verses.
Since, to this day, there has been no European translation that is intellectually compatible with the Qur’an, it is very difficult for Europeans to understand and fully comprehend it. This also makes it difficult for them to understand why, after 1,400 years, the Noble Qur’an continues to play such an important and influential role in the lives of Muslims.
But in what way does the Qur’an actually influence Muslims?
Goethe also expressed something to this effect, saying: “The style of the Noble Qur’an, in terms of its content and purpose, is characterized by the utmost precision, grandeur, and richness, and it conveys a sense of sincerity and truthfulness.”

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⭕In both cases, the basic presumption was that, according to John Tolan, 'reason can be used to destroy rival creeds and defend one's own doctrines from the charge of irrationality but not to prove the truth of Christianity,✝️

Luther was, by comparison, not so confident in reason's ability to demonstrate a logical coherence to doctrines such as the two natures in Christ and the tri-unity of God. The high articles of the Christian creed were not irrational, according to Luther, but instead were outside theو bounds of human rationality

📚 Source: Martin Luther and Islam:

⭕Historically, while the early expansion and conquests spread Islamic rule, Muslims did not try to impose their reli-gion on others or force them to convert. As "People of the Book," Jews and Christians were regarded as protected people (dhimmi), who were permitted to retain and practice their re-ligions
No such tolerance existed in Christendom, where Jews, Muslims, and other Chris-tians (those who did not accept the authority of the pope) were subjected to forced conversion, persecution, or expul-sion.

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⭕Raimarus Deist, quoting Thomas Hyde, writes that Hyde praises Muhammad as “the restorer of the true religion of Abraham,” stating: Muhammad is the one who re-established the true religion of Abraham.

📚Source: The book Rationality and Tolerance in Islam By Sylvia Hisrch page 91_92

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⭕Bishop of Hierapolis in Syria in the tenth century : To explain to his fellow-Christians why such large and importan Christian territories could be conquered by the Muslims, the bishop refers to a document of the Byzantine emperor Heraklios (610-42), a con- temporary of the Prophet, in which, referring to the biblical promise for Ishmael son of Abraham, the ancestor of the Arabs, the emperor instructed his governors in Egypt, Syria and Armenia to stop resisting the Arabs.

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